February 1951

YOSEMITE

Nature Notes

VOL. XXX FEBRUARY, 1951 NO. 2

Photo G. Raffel Mrs. H. J. Taylor Cover Photo: Half Dome, moonrise. Yosemite Valley. By Ansel Adams from "Yosemite and the Sierra Nevada, " text by John Muir, 64 photographs by Ansel Adams. Reproduction by kind permission of Houghton Mifflin Company.

THE MONTHLY PUBLICATION OF THE YOSEMITE NATURALIST DIVISION AND THE YOSEMITE NATURAL HISTORY ASSOCIATION, INC.

C. P. Russell, Superintendent D. E. McHenry, Park Naturalist H. C. Parker, Assoc. Park Naturalist N. B. Herkenham, Asst. Park Naturalist

VOL. XXX FEBRUARY, 1951 NO. 2 MRS. H. J. TAYLOR, 1863-1951

By Carl P. Russell, Park Superintendent At a time when research and interpretive work in national parks was struggling to make a beginning as a regular part of the program of the National Park Service, there came to Yosemite a volunteer worker who for several years remained here in residence for months at a time and contributed her services as Yosemite Museum librarian and docent. This collaborator was Rose Schuster Taylor (Mrs. H. J. Taylor) at Berkeley, California.

Not the least of her contributions in Yosemite conservation work was her leadership in orienting the students of the Yosemite School of Field Natural History and in maintaining the esprit de corps of ranger-naturalists and others who served the public.

Through 1934 she was a frequent contributor to Yosemite Nature Notes. One of her outstanding pieces of work grew out of her friendship with Maria Lebrado, the ancient Indian woman who was present in Yosemite when the Mariposa Battalion entered the valley in 1851. In addition to the short articles prepared on her studies of Yosemite Indians for publication in Yosemite Nature Notes, Mrs. Taylor wrote a very useful volume, Yosemite Indians and Other Sketches, which was published in San Francisco in 1936. She also contributed articles on her interviews with Maria in the University of California Chronicle in 1932.

Maria was the subject of Mrs. the esprit de corps of ranger-naturalists and others who served the public as guides and lecturers. Mrs. Taylor lived in the naturalist camp in Yosemite Valley and associated intimately with students of the school and with staff members in their home life as well as in the library, laboratory, classroom, and in the field. During this time she made a very tangible contribution which endeared her to hundreds of men and women now active in the field of nature teaching.

Her literary work did not begin until she was more than 50 years old. From 1915 until 1945 she was a steady contributor to nature study publications and conservation journals. Many of her articles appeared in Condor, Bird Lore, Wilson Bulletin, Iowa Bird Life, Bios, and the Wisconsin Magazine of History. Her writings reflect her industry in pursuing original research in history, natural history and biography, and they show her fine intellectual qualities and her abiding love for her fellow man.

Her interest in ethnology was notable also and was exceeded only by her general humanitarianism. In Yosemite she was instrumental in launching numerous research projects, which found it possible to extend her span of constructive work far beyond the time limits to which most of us are

launching numerous research projects which were conducted by others, yet she never posed as a professional scientist or teacher.

From the National Park Service standpoint, Mrs. Taylor made a significant mark upon the history of our progress in defining objectives and in devising procedures in interpretive work. These particular accomplishments were achieved after she reached the age of 60. Her work in behalf of nature protection and the history of nature protection persisted during more than a quarter of a century. This friend and benefactor of the Yosemite interpretive program found it possible to extend her span of constructive work far beyond the time limits to which most of us are restricted. She was 88 years old when she passed away in her Berkeley home on January 25 of this year.

Mrs. Taylor was the recipient of honors bestowed upon her by her Alma Mater, the University of Wisconsin, and by Phi Beta Kappa. Surviving her is her daughter, Ethel Rose Taylor of Berkeley with whom she lived, and three sons Sterling Taylor, State Bank Examiner of Berkeley, Dr. Paul Taylor, distinguished economist at the University of California, and Dr. Arthur Taylor, a physician and surgeon of Appleton, Wisconsin.

POISONOUS PLANTS USED FOR FISHING

By James W. McFarland, Ranger Naturalist By midsummer the winter snows in the Sierra Nevada had melted and the waters of the Merced River and its tributaries were low; deep shadowed pools had only a trickle of water connecting them. Here the wary rainbow trout could no longer escape capture until high water came again. The Miwok Indian with his fish poison would "stupefy" him! Dried in the sun, the trout were food for the white winter ahead.

The stupefying or killing of fish in ponds and streams in order to catch them is known historically in most countries of the world. In the United States the Iroquois, Chippewa, and Cherokee Indians used poisonous bark. However, the use of fish poisons was largely confined to central California. Here fish were plentiful and so were eaten often.

Of all the methods of capturing fish known to the Indian, that of using poisonous plants was the most ingenious, as well as the laziest.

Fish poisoning is of such a nature that it has no doubt been independently discovered time and again. his fish poison would That the California occurrences rep- "stupefy" him! Dried in the sun, the resent discoveries independent of the trout were food for the white winter ahead. practice elsewhere in America seems reasonable to believe. There is no The stupefying or killing of fish in record of how the Indian found that ponds and streams in order to catch he could saturate the water with them is known historically in most poisonous plant juices to such an countries of the world. In the United extent as to be fatal to the fish. HowStates the Iroquois, Chippewa, and ever, reason also suggests that the Cherokee Indians used poisonous technique was accidentally discovbark.' ) However, the use of fish ered while leaching out the "bitterpoisons was largely confined to cenness " from various plants which -Editor's note: A State of California fishing regulation, which applies in Yosemite National Park, prohibits fishing in any other way than with hook and line, the rod or line being held in the hand.

were used for food, or had other late summer, at a time when the uses. For example, the large seeds saponin content of the soaproot was of the California buckeye were first greatest. mashed and leached out in fresh The flora of Yosemite National water before being eaten like Park includes seven of the species of mashed potatoes or soup.' •3 On obplants used by the Indians of central serving their drugging effect on fish California in "stupefying " fish. In In the stream, some Indian, no doubt, order to determine the relative efperformed the first act of capturing fectiveness of the different kinds of fish by this method. Again, the Inplants used, simple experimental dians of central California of both tests were run last summer by the sexes usually wore their hair long. 3 author, using for each test 20 fingerBelieving that it promoted more luxling brook trout under controlled conuriant growth, the hair was lathered ditions of temperature, volume, and and washed with soaproot every flow of water. Further, the amount of few days. Thus the use of soaproot material and the manner in which as a fish poison may have been disit was prepared was recorded. The covered. Among the Pueblo Indians results are tabulated on page 19. A the practice of washing the hair more complete description of the reprior to a religious rite, with the actions observed is included in the pounded root of the yucca which discussion of each plant as follows: contains a similar active principle, 10 may have been the occasion of a 1. California Buckeye (Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt.) like discovery. The success of fish poisoning was increased by the coincidence of the (Miwok name) annual season of low water in The California buckeye, a small, streams and the period of maximum broad-crowned tree up to 40 feet concentration of the active principles high, has opposite, compound leaves in the plants used. Thus it was comwith 5 to 7 leaflets. The fruit is a partitively easy to get an effective large pear-shaped capsule, a leathconcentration of soaproot poison in ery-textured husk surrounding one a slow moving, shallow stream of or rarely two large glossy seeds Photos by N. B. Herkenham California buckeye : tree in blossom; flowers and leaves; fruit.

which are sometimes nearly 2 inches in diameter. The tree grows on dry hills or canyon sides from the coast to the Sierra Nevada foothills, up to 4,000 feet. In Yosemite it is found in the Merced Canyon below Arch Rock and in the Tuolumne Canyon below Hetch Hetchy. The active principle, esculin, is a crystalline bitter glucoside slightly soluble in water and alcohol.7 Used as a fish poison by the Indians, the buckeye seeds or nuts were mashed and then put in small creeks or pools. The fish gradually came to the surface and floated belly up.3 Two preliminary tests were run last summer, using the somewhat immature fruits of August 20. The mashed nut meats seemed to cause immediate distress in the fish. However, it was 25 minutes, using a high concentration of 4 ounces of nut meats to 3 gallons of water, before the fingerling brook trout turned belly up and died. Using half this concentration of the fruit husks instead of the seeds, all the fish were dead in 5 minutes. With the material used, results indicate that the buckeye fruit husks are ten times as potent as the nut meats in poisoning fish. In Indian practice, it would seem to have been more economical to eat the leached nut meats and use the husks for fishing, except that the preparation of the nuts for food was so tedious and time-consuming that it was resorted to only when other foods were scarce.3 2. Soaproot (Chlorogalum pomeridianum (Ker) Kunth.) (Miwok: potawi. Other names: soap plant; from Mexican for soap) This is a tall, slender-stemmed lily. Stalks bearing purple and white flowers rise from a subterranean bulb rich in saponin, which is a Soaproot detergent, becoming soapy in water. Saponin is also the active poisonous principle, a glucoside. The bulb, about 3 inches in diameter, is enveloped in a thick coating of brown, matted, hair-like fibers. The plant is abundant below 5,000 feet in open valleys and foothills, especially in stony ground. Locally it is found at Wawona and Hetch Hetchy, but is rare in Yosemite Valley. The soap plant had a greater variety of uses in the culture of the Miwok than did any other plant. It was used as food, soap, brush, medicine, glue, and as a poison to "stupefy" fish.',3,15 The root produces a rosette of long, undulate-margined, grass-like leaves that rest flat upon the ground. These were sometimes eaten green in the spring while they were still tender.6 The bulb itself was sometimes leached in fresh water to remove the bitterness, then roasted and eaten.',4 Having the detergent

properties of soap, it cleans the clothing as well as the hair and skin.

3. Durango Root (Datisca glomerata Brew. & Wats.) (Miwok: ismelayi) The stems of this plant arise in clusters up to 10 feet high from a perennial root, with leaves much divided, giving a fern-like appearance. The flowers are mostly dioecious in clusters in the axils of the leafy branches. The fruit is a capsule, opening at the top.

Durango root is found in streambeds along the foothills up to 5,000 feet. It is abundant and extremely luxuriant in moist draws, forming dense thickets on both sides of the Merced Canyon just within the park boundary at about 2,600 feet elevation.

The active principle, datiscin, a substance having the appearance of grape sugar, was first extracted by Braconnet from the leaves of Datisca glomerata of southern Europe. It has been used as a yellow dye, and as a medicine by the Miwok.

Although it was used as a fish poison by the Pomo Indians, in last summer's tests, using a high concentration of the crushed leaves and stems, it took 35 minutes to kill the fish. However, in 5 minutes the fish moved sluggishly, appeared to be drugged, and could easily be caught by hand.

Recent observations of test results of soaproot in poisoning fish differ in several particulars from those recorded in the literature. The fish were not only "stupefied," but killed. In no case was it possible to revive a fish. Further, the fish did not rise to the surface, but each fish without exception sank to the bottom. Death very probably was due to the hemolytic effect of the saponin absorbed into the blood stream through the gills, producing respiratory failure. Finally, the results of the tests indicate that an effective concentration of the poison could not be maintained very far downstream from the immediate pool in which it was placed.

4. Common Manroot (Echinocystis fabacea Naudin) (Miwok: latvukira. Other names: old-man in-the-ground; bigroot; wild cucumber; chilicothe)

This perennial-rooted member of the gourd family has an enormous bitter root often as large as a man's body. Stems that may climb by tendrils to 30 feet bear leaves deeply 5 to 7-lobed. The peculiar and conspicuous fruit is a big prickly green ball, measuring 2 inches across.

Common manroot grows on hillslopes or high sandy places in valleys of central California up to 4,000 feet in elevation. Only one specimen was found by the author in Yosemite Valley, near Government Center.

Identity of the active principle in the root apparently is unknown.

was found by the author in Yosemite man from a dosage of only 20 Valley, near Government Center. drops. 16 In the recent tests, using an extremely high concentration of pulped

5. Turkey Mullein (Picrocarphus setigerus Benth.) (Other names: doveweed; yerba del pescado)

Turkey mullein grows commonly root, all the fish turned belly up and floated within 7 minutes. Although Chris Brown (Chief Leemee) states that this was done by the Yosemite Indians, it would seem that there is insufficient quantity of the material available in this area for it to have assumed much importance in Yosemite. On the other hand its use in this way may be the reason for its almost total absence locally in Yosemite Valley.

Turkey mullein grows commonly in California on dry open areas up to 4,500 feet, reaching the vicinity of El Portal and Hetch Hetchy; it has been found near Ahwahnee Meadow in Yosemite Valley.

The California Indians used the heavy-scented herbage to stupefy fish so that they might be caught by hand, whence the Spanish name, yerba del pescado. When tested last summer, such high concentrations were necessary as to appear impractical for this purpose. Moreover, the fish did not float but sank to the bottom. In no case was it possible to revive a fish. Again the use of the word "stupefy" in the written accounts does not accurately describe their reaction.

6. Blue Curls (Stachys plamaginea Benth.) (Miwok: hologsis; Other names: camphor weed; vinegar weed)

This mint grows to 18 inches in height, with soft-pubescent herbage and exceedingly unpleasant scent. Its flowers grow in small lateral clusters. The active principle apparently is unidentified.

Blue curls grows in open grassy places in the foothills, and has been found up to 8,500 feet in the western part of the park, including Yosemite Valley. There are several records of its having been used as a fish poison. Photo by Brockette Foliage and fruit of California laurel (Inch squares on background)

6. California Laurel (Umbellularia californica Nutt.) (Miwok: We. Other names: California bay; pepperwood; Oregon myrtle)

This handsome evergreen laurel may range from a shrubby form to a medium-sized tree of 80 feet height, or even 175 feet in southwestern Oregon. The leaves contain a volatile essential oil that is highly aromatic. It is this spicy quality which makes them important as the "bay leaves" used in cooking, as for flavoring meats and soups.

California laurel is one of the most abundant and characteristic trees of California, growing in moist places and on hillsides up to 5,000 feet. It is commonly found at the base of the cliffs bordering Yosemite Valley.

"Pepperwood" leaves were used for fish poisoning by the Yosemite Indians and by the Mono Indians of the North Fork of the San Joaquin River in California. The active principle is umbellulone, a powerful antiseptic that has marked hemolytic properties, being a depressant of both respiration and circulation.

TABULATED RESULTS OF FISH POISONING TESTS

Water Elapsed Active Plant Used Part Used Quantity Volume Reaction Time Principle

California Buckeye a. nut meat 4 oz. 3 gal. distress immediate esculin (Aesculus californica) crushed belly up 25 min. b. husks 2 oz. 3 gal. belly up 4 min. esculin crushed

Soaproot bulb 4 oz. 4 cu. ft. belly up 30 min. saponin (Chlorogalum pomeridianum) peeled & mixed in and sank crushed water & Durango Root leaves & soil drugged 5 min. datiscin (Datisca glomerata) stems 2 oz. 3 gal. belly up, 27 min. crushed some sank Common Manroot root 4 oz. 3 gal. belly up 7 min. unknown (Echinocystis fabacea) crushed & floated Turkey Mullein leaves & 8 oz. 3 gal. belly up 30 min. crotonin (Picrocarphus setigerus) stems and sank crushed Blue Curls leaves & 8 oz. 3 gal. belly up 30 min. unknown (Stachys plamaginea) stems and sank crushed drugged California Laurel leaves 4 oz. 3 gal. no change 10 min. umbellulone (Umbellularia californica) crushed all recovered 1 hour These preliminary tests were made in the fish hatchery at Happy Isles, Yosemite National Park, California, using 20 fingerling brook trout for each test. The tests were run on August 9, 10, 11, and 22, 1950. A demonstration using about 50 legal size rainbow trout was made in a large pool of Yosemite Creek on August 18, 1950, using the bulb of the soap plant.

both respiration and circulation. The results of the tests with California laurel and buckeye and durango root were indeterminate, may have some significance as to the physiological effect on the fish, especially on the amount of air in the air bladder controlling buoyancy.

The experimental tests of last summer showed that this material drugged the fish so that they could easily be caught by hand, but that it was incapable of killing them. Conclusions

Preliminary tests in the use of plants for fish poisoning have yielded some interesting facts but few definite conclusions. It may be said that the word "stupefy" frequently used in the literature inaccurately describes the reaction of the fish in these tests. Essentially, stupefy means to deprive of motion and sensibility, but not to kill. This is descriptive only of the reaction of the fish to California laurel. All other plants used resulted in the death of the fish. However, it is reasonable to assume that in sufficient dilution the others might also "drug" rather than kill the fish.

The phrase "turn belly up and float" appearing in written accounts does not consistently describe the effect on the fish in the experiments. It is true that all fish turned belly up; a fish killed by almost any means will so react. However, not all of the plant poisons caused the fish to float. The fact that only common manroot caused all fish to float, while soap plant, turkey mullein, and blue curls caused them to sink, is significant.

Capturing fish by the use of plant poisons was certainly a lazy way of fishing. However, it was effective only under a number of coincidental conditions. This method yielded good results only at times of very low water. In order to maintain a potent concentration for a sufficient length of time, it would be almost necessary to build a dam to prevent the dilution of the plant poison. A dam would also prevent the escape of fish seeking healthier waters. Chris Brown states that this was the technique used by the Yosemite Indians. Perhaps the greatest limitation lay in the degree of abundance of the plant, which would determine whether it could be gathered in sufficient quantities to make an effective concentration in a large pool of water.

The author was unable to discover any record of previous experiments utilizing poisonous plants to stupefy fish. One of the major questions yet to be answered concerning a specific plant poison is: "What is its minimum effective concentration for stupefying fish?"

One of the major questions yet to be answered concerning a specific plant poison is: "What is its minimum effective concentration for stupefying fish?"

LITERATURE CITED

1. Aginsky, B. W. 1943. Culture element distributions : 24. Central Sierra. Anthropological Records 8(4). University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 2. Bailey, L. H. 1939. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. The MacMillan. Co., New York. 3. Barrett, S. A. and Gifford, E. W. 1933. Miwok material culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee. Cannon Printing Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 4. Brown, Chris (Chief Leemee, Yosemite Indian) 1950. Verbal communication. 5. Brubaker, F. 1926. Plants used by Yosemite Indians. Yosemite Nature Notes 5(10). 6. California State Board of Forestry 1912. Pharmaceutical plants and their culture. Bulletin No. 2. 7. Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia 1906. Vol. 3. The Century Co., New York.

8. Chesnut, V. K. 1902. Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Contributions of the National Herbarium 7(3). 9. Clark, Galen 1904. Indians of the Yosemite. H. S. Crocker Co., San Francisco. 10. Hodge, F. W. (Editor) 1912. Handbook of American Indians. Bulletin No. 30. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C. 11. Jepson, W. L. 1925. A manual of the flowering plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley. 12. Miller, F. E. 1928. The medicinal plants of Yosemite National Park. Unpublished manuscript, Yosemite Museum Library. 13. Newberry, J. S. 1887. Food and fiber plants of the North American Indians. Popular Science Monthly. Vol. 32. 14. Russell, C. P. 1924. Soaproot. Yosemite Nature Notes 3(8). 15. Russell, C. P. 1927. A plant of many uses. Yosemite Nature Notes 6(5). 16. The Dispensatory of the United States of America 1950. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. Photo by Brockette Chief Leemee gathering fish killed by soaproot poison.

Digitized by Yosemite Online Library Dan Anderson